1. How did stereotypes about and misunderstandings of Native peoples serve colonists’ interests during the period of settler-colonial expansion? More recently, how has the federal government used physical characteristics or genetic factors to misrepresent Native identities? Include examples from Diné and Lumbee experiences. [在殖民扩张时期，对原住民的“刻板印象”和“误解”是怎么使殖民者获益的？更近期，联邦政府是如何使用“身体特征”和“基因因素”歪曲原住民身份的？]¶
The myth of the "vanishing Indian" was a self-serving narrative used to advance political agandas aimed at the continual seizure of Native lands and resources.
Colonists used the idea of Indians as "ancients" to justify the policies of forced assimilation, effectively aiming for the disappearance of Native people to facilitate land transfers to settlers
In 1936, an Office of Indian Affairs (OIA) delegation visited the Lumbee and utilized "anthropometry" to measure physical traits like skin color and nose shape to define their "Indian blood".
2. What are some challenges that Wisconsin Tribes have faced, regarding reservations? How have they addressed those challenges? Include examples from the experiences of the Ojibwe and the Ho-Chunk. [威斯康辛州的部落在保留地方面面临了什么挑战？他们是怎么解决的？]¶
The Ojibwe at LCO faced the destruction of their sacred wild rice beds amd cemeteries due to the construction of the Winter Dam in 1921.
The tribe addressed this challenge by occupying the dam site in 1971 with the support of the American Indian Movement, eventually winning financial compensation and the right to operate the dam.
The Ho-Chunk faced repeated forced removals to Iowa, Minnesota, and South Dakota during the 19th century, resulting in the death of a quarter of their population.
They addressed these challenges by persistently returning to Wisconsin as "renegades" and eventually using a 40-acre piece of trust land in 1961 as a foundation to rebuild their constitutional government.
3. What spiritual and cultural impacts have resulted from settler colonialism’s disruptions of Native people’s relationships to the land? Use examples from the experiences of the Lakota, Gwich’in, and Lumbee people. [殖民者对原住民与土地之间关系的破坏对原住民产生了哪些精神和文化影响]¶
The Gwich'in express their cultural diruption with the sentiment "we don't know where we are anymore," reflecting a deep loss of identity tied to land.
The forced transition from nomadism to fixed settlements created a profound social and economic diorientation as the people were separated from the caribou migration paths they knew.
The Lumbee identity is fundamentally rooted in the Lumbee River and specific kinship settlements, which were threatened by the privatization of land and the imposition of external racial categories.
Disruption of land relationships forced the Lumbee to adopt different tribal names over 130 years to meet changing federal criteria for authenticity.
4. How have US government agencies’ and US military actions directly pushed Native peoples into poverty? Include examples from the experiences of the Diné and Mohawk people. [美国政府和军队是怎么直接导致原住民的贫穷的？]¶
In the 1860s, the U.S. Army engaged in a scorched-earth campaign against the Dine, burning their homes and fields before forcing them into internment at Hweeldi.
During the 19302, the federal government's livestock reduction program slaughtered thousands of Dine sheep, which were the foundation of their self-sufficient economy.
The construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway, supported by government agencies, dammed rivers and destroyed the Mohawk fishing industry.
Industrial pollution from nearby aluminum plants, authorized by the states, crippled Mohawk farms with toxins like PCBs and mercury.
5. How has the US government, and its agencies, supported businesses’ activities against the will of the Native peoples? Include examples from the experiences of the Lakota people and Native Hawaiians. [美国政府和机构支持了哪些违背原住民意愿的活动]¶
The U.S. military provided protection for gold prospectors and railroad contractors who illegally trespassed on Lakota treaty lands in the Black Hills.
The government in Hawai'i supported white settler sugar planters by allowing them to divert water away from Native Hawaiian communities, which destroyed traditional taro farming.
The state supported the construction of the Kepaniwai Heritage Gardens on sared burial sites despite protests from Native Hawaiian civic clubs.
The Hawaiian state government leased seized crown lands ro biotech corporations for pesticide testing, disregarding the health concerns of local Native residents.
6. How have US government agencies pushed Native peoples into the market economy? Include examples from the experiences of the Diné and Alaska Natives. [美国政府机构是怎么把原住民推向市场经济的]¶
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) partnered with outside corporations to bring gendered wage labor to the Die reservation following the destruction of their subsistence herds.
Federal agencies introduced mineral and oil leasing contracts that made the Dine economy dependent on external extractive industries, a concept Curley calls "carbon sovereignty".
Government agencies and missionaries in Alaska established schools and churches that required nomadic Gwich'in groups to settle in fixed locations so their children could attend.
The introduction of the fur trade by white traders integrated the Gwich'in into a regional cash economy where they became dependent on purchasing ammunition, tea, and firearms.
7. How have the market economy and colonialism, beyond disrupting relationships to land, led to other social and cultural impacts on Native peoples in the US? Use examples from the experiences of Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, and the Diné. [除了土地以外，市场经济和殖民主义还对原住民的社会、文化有什么影响]¶
In Hawai'i, the market economy has commercialized Native culture through tourism, narrating living traditions as "heritage" objects that belong to the past.
The diversion of water for commercial resorts has alienated Native Hawaiians from their traditional foodways, leading to an over-reliance on imported food.
The development of extractive industries on Dine lands led to the rise of "man camps", which are linked to increased gendered violence against Native women.
The monetization of the economy facilitated the introduction of social pathologies, including substance abuse and a decline in traditional communal values.
8. How has environmental damage impacted the health and economies of Native peoples in the US? Use examples from the experiences of the Mohawk, Diné, and Native Hawaiians. [环境破坏对原住民的环境和经济有什么影响]¶
Mohawk communities suffered from PCB and mercury contamination in their local fish and crops, which destroyed their traditional food economy and introduced carcinogens into the poulation.
In Hawai'i, the death of rivers due to water diversion destroyed the local ecological cycle of freshwater and saltwater mixing, impacting fisheries and reefs.
Native Hawaiian school children have reported high rates of asthma, cancer, and birth defects linked to pesticide and GMO testing on lands adjacent to their communities.
9. What were some specific pieces of legislation put into place as part of an assimilation approach? What have their impacts been on reservations, and on Tribal sovereignty on those reservations? [同化政策具体出台了哪些立法？这些立法对保留地以及其居民产生了什么影响？]¶
The 1887 Dawes/Allotment Act divided communal tribal lands into individual plots to encourage private property ownership, resulting in the loss of 90 million acres of Native land.
The Allotment Act created a "checkerboard" pattern of land ownership that severely limited tribal jurisdiction within reservation boundaries.
The 1924 Indian Citizenship Act imposed U.S. citizenship on Native people without their consent, aiming to dissolve tribal nations into the general populace.
These laws utilized federal "trust responsibility" to treat Native nations as "domestic dependent nations", replacing inherent tribal authority with federal oversight.
10. What was the intended purpose of boarding schools? What were their impacts on Native families and cultures? [寄宿学校的初衷是什么， 他们对于原住民家庭和文化有什么影响]¶
Boarding schools aimmed to destroy Native languages and religions by prohibiting children from speaking their mother tongues or practicing traditional beliefs.
The impact was a profound disassociation between children and their families, as students were often forbidden from returning home for years.
Schools provided only elementary industrial or domestic training, creating "lost generations" of traumatized individuals who lacked the skills of their own communities and were marginalized in white society.
11. What was the goal of the Termination Era? How did it impact Tribes? Provide specific examples, including Wisconsin Tribes. [终结时代的目标是什么？他是怎么影响部落的]¶
The goal of termination was to end the special political and trust relationship between the federal government and tribal nations.
The impact included the loss of federal protections, the removal of land from trust status, and the end of essential transfer payments guaranteed by treaties.
Public Law 280 (1953) transferred criminal and civil jurisdiction from the federal government to specific states, including Wisconsin, without providing funding for law enforcement.
The Menominee Nation of Wisconsin was the first to be terminated in 1954, resulting in a disastrous economic decline and the loss of their reservation status until they regained federal recognition in 1973.
12. What was Relocation? How did Urban Indians experience it? [什么是relocation？城市印第安人是如何经历的？]¶
Relocation was a 1950s federal policy that provided funding for Native individuals and families to move from reservations to designated urban industrial areas.
Urban Indians often experienced deep cultural isolation, racism, and poverty while struggling to find high-paying jobs in cities like Milwaukee.
Many urban Native people built community by forming pan-tribal institutions, such as the Indian Community School in Milwaukee and various sports team.
Organizations like the American Indian Movement (AIM) were founded in urban environments to mobilize for civil rights and reconnect urban Indians to their heritage.
13. What were the impacts of separatist approaches, from the 1830s through the 1950s, in terms of protecting Native Nations from settler-colonialism, imposing constraints on them, and supporting or undermining their sovereignty? Provide specific examples involving legislation, federal government actions, or judicial decisions. [1830-1950,分离策略在保护原住民免受殖民主义侵害，限制原住民，支持或损害原住民主权方面，有什么影响？具体举例立法，政府行动或司法行为]¶
The 1830 Indian Removal Act utilized forced separation to move tribes west of the Mississippi, which led to mass death but alowed tribes a temporary space to rebuild their governments in isolation.
The "Marshall Trilogy" of judicial decisions, such as Worcester v. Georgia (1832), supported sovereignty by ruling that states had no power over Native nations, though this was often ignored by the executive branch.
The 1934 Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) marked a return to a "separatist" model by halting land allotment and allowing tribes to organize their own governments.
However, the IRA still undermined soverignty by imposing paternalistic concil structures that were required to be "legible" to U.S. Department of the Interiror.
14. How have, or have not, treaties ensured land rights for Native Nations? Compare the experiences of the Lakota, the Diné, and Alaska Natives. [条约是怎么确保或没有确保原住民的土地权利的]¶
The 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie guaranteed the Black Hill to Lakota, but the U.S. government unilaterally broke the treaty and seized the land omce gold was discovered.
The 1868 Treaty for the Dine allowed them to return to their homeland but imposed hard, rectangle-shaped reservation borders that ignored their sacred geography and traditional spatial knowledge.
Alaska Natives did not have formal treaties because the era of treaty-making ended in 1871; instead, their land rights were settled via 1971 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA).
ANCSA created corporate structure for land ownership that prioritized profit over traditional tribal trust status, leading some villages like Venetie to opt out to maintain their sovereignty.
15. How has Native peoples’ legal advocacy ensured their rights to natural resources? Include examples from the experiences of the Ojibwe and Native Hawaiians. [原住民的法律维权如何保障了他们自然资源的权力]¶
The Ojibwe bands in Wisconsin won the Voigt decision in federal court, which affirmed their theaty rights to hunt, fish, and gather on ceded lands.
The Sokaogon Ojibwe used "treatment as a state" (TAS) status under the Clean Water Act to successfully block the development of the Crandon Mine, which threatened their wild rice beds.
Native Hawwaiians engaged in Nā Wai ʻEhā water struggle, leading to a 2012 Supreme Court victory that restored daily stream flows to their communities for traditional agriclture.
16. What legal rights did American Indians obtain in the 1960s-1980s? Name and describe specific pieces of federal legislation. [1960-1980年，美国印第安人获得了哪些法律权益]¶
The 1968 Indian Civil Rights Act (ICRA) required tribal governments to provide their citizens with basic bill of rights protections.
The 1975 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistence Act allowed tribes to contract and manage social and educational programs previously run by the federal government.
The 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) recognized the right of tribes to conduct gambling operations for economic development.
The 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) gave tribal courts exclusive or preferred jurisdiction over the placement of Native children to prevent their forced removal to non-Native homes.
17. During the early days of settler colonialism and the era of Westward Expansion, how did Native peoples resist the harms being imposed on them? Include examples from Lumbee, Ojibwe, and Lakota histories. [在早期殖民主义和西进运动中，原住民是怎么抵抗迫害的]¶
The Ojibwe used diplomacy to resist removal; Chief Buffalo traveled to Washington in 1852 to persuaded President Fillmore to rescind the reoval order for the Wisconsin bands.
The Lakota resisted military defeat, the Lakota engaged in the Ghost Dance, a spiritual revitalization movement aimed at restoring their world and making colonizers disappear.
18. How have American Indians adapted and thrived, socially and economically, in urban environments? Use specific examples of actions they have taken. [美国印第安人是如何在城市环境适应并实现社会、经济繁荣的]¶
Urban Indians established the Indian Community School of Milwaukee to provide a K-8 curriculum informed by traditional values, language, and heritage.
They formed the American Indian Chamber of Commerce of Wisconsin (AICCW) to provide networking, advocacy, and scholarships for Native students.
The Indian Summer Festival in Milwaukee was created to celebrate and share Native culture with the public, attracting over 1.3 million visitors over 25 years.
Urban Indians organized across tribal differences through groups like the American Indian Movement (AIM) to demand federal funding for social services and health clinics.